The Elastic Body

Introducing Biotensegrity as a model of Elastic Integrity in the moving body by Joanne Avison

Everyone has a motion pattern that we could call a movement signature. Working in yoga, or any movement modality, a teacher naturally develops a more refined sense of people’s individual styles and movement expressions. Considering the fascial matrix as a dynamic, self-organising, BioTensegrity architecture can transform our ability to see how individuals develop their unique movement signatures within the protocol of a given class. Part of this includes recognising different fascial types and the value of elastic integrity. In this article, it is viewed as an asset to optimising any individual’s quality of movement. As well as shifting more popular ideas on ‘stretching’ for its own sake, the BioTensegrity model provides a valuable tool for recognising optimum movement patterns at the speed of motion. This discussion emphasises the general shift from seeing muscles as functional units to understanding the fascial matrix (including muscles and bones) as a whole body architecture of soft tissues, morphologically unique to the self-motivated individual moving it.

 

Fig 1: Image used for the First Biotensegrity Summit in Washington DC; September 18^th 2015. [biotensegritysummit.events.] and reproduced with kind permission from capacitor.org and the photographer RJ Muna (rjmuna.com).

 

Body-writing in Our Own Hand

Flexibility and stretching tend to be held as the archetypal movement ‘celebrities’, particularly in yoga. Those with naturally bendy bodies can get top marks while the ‘stiff’ people, who feel they cannot stretch to twist and contort with ease, are often considered ‘not as good’ as their naturally flexible companions.

There is, however, a much more valuable and powerful distinction available, once we appreciate the myofascial body and its structure, as a whole dynamic anatomy of continuity. This distinction lies in recognising elasticity as paramount and understanding that for some individuals it is enhanced by stretching and for others it is the opposite. There are those that will increase their natural elastic integrity by stiffening the tissues. This makes sense if the foundations of BioTensegrity and the context it provides to describe human movement are defined. This is as the basis of the collagen network of every human form: a matrix intimate to every tiny part of us, formed under tension since we began to self-assemble as embryos.

Energy Storage Capacity

Elasticity is 
the source (and containment and replenishment) of our energy storage capacity. Once we understand it – and there are a lot of misconceptions around it – we have an immeasurably valuable resource for vitality. Really it comes down to an appropriate balance between overall tensional stiffness and overall tensional sogginess.  This depends on the fascial body type of an individual and the way they “load” their tissues over time. [1],[2]

Drawing from several different aspects of recent research, we might consider the two ends of a scale from strength to stretchiness, in natural tendencies of fascial body types. For example, a strong, ‘Viking type’ body[3] may tend towards strength and stiffness naturally. A bendy or sinewy, ‘jungle type’ body may err on the side of flexibility. Referring to the members of a movement classroom, the key is finding balance between the two extremes of the graph depending on their particular movement signature. The benefits of stretching or strengthening will be found in relatively opposite ways for each of these types, if the value of elastic integrity is to bring vitality to their very different signatures.

Elasticity as an Asset

Identifying authentic elasticity is extremely valuable as a teaching tool and an important ‘kinaesthetic dictionary’ to expand and refer to. This is partly because of its global application in reading bodies accurately and partly because it makes sense of structural integrity of the whole animated form. Elasticity really means “resistance to deformation” and implies efficiency of reformation. In other words; how do we change shape, respond appropriately and then restore optimum shape after doing so. The best way of obtaining structural integrity might include stretching and strengthening but such efficiency and resilience (see Fig 1) is by no means limited to either. Elasticity emerges as the paramount asset to efficient movement and poise in stillness. It refers to moment by moment changes locally and globally while nourishing structural integrity over time.

Exploring New Terms

“It has been shown that fascial stiffness and elasticity play a significant role in many ballistic movements of the human body. First discovered by studies of the calf tissues of kangaroos, antelopes and later of horses, modern ultrasound studies have revealed that fascial recoil plays in fact a similarly impressive role in many of our human movements. How far you can throw a stone, how high you can jump, how long you can run, depends not only the contraction of your muscle fibres; it also depends to a large degree on how well the elastic recoil properties of your fascial network are supporting these movements.” Robert Schleip [4]

Schleip refers in this quote to the elastic recoil properties of fascia in ballistic movements. However, if biotensegrity is the basis of the architecture of our collagen matrix, then it also has elastic integrity when we are still. We do not deflate. The body benefits from the value of elasticity just as much when sitting on a meditation cushion or running a marathon: peak performance and peak ‘pre-formance’ are both animated by the same system.

Understanding and recognising innate elasticity is made more difficult by the many different meanings we have for the word ‘elasticity’ itself. There is a general perception that it is associated with stretchiness and flexibility (the archetypal heroes in most yoga-based movement classes). The enemies in that environment might be seen as tension, stiffness, strain or stress. In the definition of elasticity, however, it is the lack of suitable stiffness that can be a deficit to structural integrity.  Despite the level to which it is favoured in yoga teaching, stretching is just one aspect of a much broader picture: one that becomes clear if biotensegrity principles are appreciated.

In order to see this as a general and global distinction for movement integrity and overall vitality (including at rest) we can include four main attributes of elastic integrity (Fig. 2).

Fig 2 The Elastic Body relies on different elements to find Elastic Integrity for each individual movement signature; relating closely to the fascial body type.

The useful schematic in Fig.2 is deceptively simple. Balance and access come from the centre: it is a question of ensuring a balance of suitable stiffness, which means suitable resistance to deformation and efficient reformation. This is unique for each individual. In fact, ‘Bendy Wendy’ (see Fig. 3) may need more stiffness, not more stretching.

Fig 3: The Bendy Wendy body type, sketch reproduced with permission from the author.

The terminology needs some reframing and the idea that yoga is synonymous with stretching might be a disservice to the potential power of its contribution to elastic integrity. Elastic energy is very low-cost metabolically: it is the essence of healthy, vital movement. On or off the mat, we seek a signature our body signs with vitality whatever movements we are doing. Mixing modalities to bring this balance may be the most useful way to work and foster this valuable asset of architectural integrity. In other words, a balance between stretching-type movements and those based upon resistance may hold a key to elastic integrity.

 

Elasticity can be considered as
one side of a coin. The other side 
of that coin is stiffness. Stiffness is the resistance to deformation of a material. Elasticity is the efficiency of reformation. The literal definition is “stored energy capacity” which is a function of elasticity and stiffness in mutual balance. The amount of stored energy capacity is relative to the stiffness and elasticity of a material. On this basis, steel has higher energy storage capacity (elasticity) than rubber. A steel car spring has high stiffness while a Slinky toy has low stiffness. Both have elasticity. The car spring (higher stiffness and elasticity) is better able to resist deformation and therefore, to be supportive.

Viscoelasticity. In liquids, this same principle is measured in viscosity (thickness). Honey is more viscous than water because it resists deformation when you stir it. Water has relatively lower viscosity and is less resistant to deformation. Viscoelasticity acts as a ‘damper’ (i.e. such as would be placed on a stiff car spring to modify the rate of elastic return). It is a time-dependent way of regulating elastic ‘spring-back’. The internal tissues of the human body rely on this to change from one movement to another.

Poroelasticity is a feature of geology that is also relevant to the extracellular matrix.[5]  The combination of our tissues and contained fluids includes these characteristics as essential ingredients of our architectural form, from embryo to elder. They change constantly and yet remain in integrity, re-arranging as we do, movement-by-movement and moment-by-moment; inwardly and outwardly. This is what defines us as living forms and is re-defined by understanding the geometries of biologic forms, such as the full model of BioTensegrity represents on every scale. We are made up of various chambers in and around the Extra Cellular Matrix; holding together a variety of colloids, foams and emulsions of our internal chemistries and fluids. Thus, a poroelastic aspect of our internal “close packing” systems may be a valuable aspect of the BioTensgrity model.

 

 

The Middle Way

Suitable Stiffness as an Attribute of Biotensegrity

Confusion about elasticity is also created by the use of elastic bands in building biotensegrity models. The distinction is between elasticity as a property of any material and ‘elasticated’ bands. Biotensegrity models are actually optimised using non-elasticated materials, to demonstrate strength and accurate examples of how collagen behaves in our body architecture. It is the sum of their combined tension–compression organisation combined in specific geometries, the balance between the length of the internal struts and the density of the external tensional elements that provides elasticity to the different aspects of our overall form. This can be demonstrated with the models in (Figs 4 and 5).

 

Figure 4, “Tensegritoys” these tensegrity model toys were created by the Manhattan Toy Company in consultation with Tom Flemons of Intension Designs[6]

You may be able to see that the toy on the left is ‘soggy’: it has very low tension or stiffness. The one on the right can bounce more. These are ‘Tensegritoys’ (Fig 4)[7] with elasticated tension members and ‘compression’ shafts made of wood, organised as one continuous structure. They are identical in size but the left-hand toy has lost its tensile integrity and is more collapsed. It has comparatively low stiffness. This does not represent flexibility, rather it shows a lack of sufficient tensile integrity to hold itself up.[8]

 

Figure 5, Suitable Stiffness:  This tensegrity mast has no elasticated components. Nevertheless, it demonstrates high elasticity, because it has suitable stiffness. Model designed by Bruce Hamilton[9] and constructed by the author.

In these models, the ‘soggiest’ one (Fig.4) is the most stretched, which in this model makes it the weakest of the three. Stretching is an ingredient in the recipe for structural integrity but only in balance with suitable stiffness and depending, to some extent, on the movement signature of the individual. The mast, with no elasticated fabric, retains its elasticity when it is bounced, held out or up or hung upside down.  It is independent of gravity in that sense.  It is the most balanced and resilient of the three models because it has the highest tensional integrity and stiffness: it is by far the stiffest of the three. In this context, it is the guardian of the highest energy storage capacity.

 

While the tissue itself has
recoil properties, a common misunderstanding is that the balance of elastin and collagen within the fascial fibres gives rise to our elasticity. Elastin fibres can elongate up to 150% of their length and restore or reform. It is, in fact, one of the suite of tissues the body calls upon in wound healing.[10]  Suitable tensile properties 
in our tissues and their overall elastic integrity rely upon the stiffness of the collagen matrix, which is essentially low in deformation and relatively
high in resistance to it (i.e. stiffness). (It stretches up to about 5% only.) This, in balance with our architecture, creates overall energy storage capacity. If we were too “elasticated” we could not function: the energy literally leaks. It can look like a soggy structure that needs strengthening, stiffening, or making taut. A marquee is not a tensegrity structure as such because it relies on being pinned by guy wires to the ground (we do not, even though we are bound to return to it.  We can move independently of gravity). However, a tent is a tension-compression model of sorts. Imagine using elastic guy wires and bendy tent poles.  They would not “tension” or “stiffen” the fabric of the marquee sufficiently to take appropriate care of the internal space or the external forces acting upon it. They would have “low resistance to deformation”. This is the basic and simple way to begin understanding our innate dependency on the logic of BioTensegrity as a powerful model of the architecture of our living form.

 

The mast in Fig 5 is made of guitar strings and hollow steel arrow shafts.[11] It is exceptionally light
and encloses a maximum of space with the fewest materials. Any force applied to it can be seen and felt to be transmitted to varying amplitudes throughout the whole structure.  This is a compelling model of biological dynamic architecture, seen throughout the dynamic anatomy of living forms and their highly efficient ability to move around[12]. It is a triangulated structure (which provides some relative stability) and reveals a host of properties that we have throughout our tissues. It stands up, in all directions, by itself and, as a whole, it can bounce. (It is also a model of a closed kinematic chain with multi-bar linkage and no levers)[13]

Whatever direction you pull or push this model in, the structure gives, but naturally resists deformation which means it has high elasticity. Whether you pull, push, bend or twist, the architectural geometries naturally counter any movement by stiffening
the whole structure in resistance to deformation.  It then reforms immediately from deformation (within its resilience range) maintaining the right internal spatial relationships. This relates to our ability to perform postures or athletic feats, without toppling body parts. If the human “spinal column” really was a stacked vertical column, then even a slight tilt, would destroy our structural integrity. Columns are compression structures, like stacked bricks in a house wall. They conform to the laws of ‘hard matter’ and non-biological linear organisation. If we change the angle of the ground or attempt to move the structure it poses a significant threat to its structural integrity. In a cartwheel or a yoga pose with the spine parallel to the ground, the bones would break apart if the spine followed the rules of a stacked linear structure. It cannot be usefully analysed on the basis of Newtonian physics and laws of compression-based, hard matter organisation. Human bodies do not conform to that logic.

Our various soft tissues (harder bones and softer tissues around them of varying densities are all ‘soft tissues’) conform to the very different laws of soft matter. They are non-linear biologic structures. Once we place ourselves in a handstand, or pound around a running track, bits of us don’t fall off!! As a general rule, in healthy bodies, we restore our form soon after making shape changes. This makes us living examples of how biotensegrity principles work as dynamic whole physiologies.

 

New Strategies: Elastic Integrity as a New Value

A useful example of the paradigm shift between more classical notions and that of BioTensegrity as a biomechanical model is in research on the Achilles tendon. Classical kinesiological models suggest that in jumping, for instance, the Achilles tendon is the strong, supportive, relatively less mobile binding, connecting the calf (gastrocnemius) muscle to the heel (calcaneus) at the back of the ankle joint. The ‘movement’ occurs at, or has been classically assigned to, the calf muscle (gastrocnemius), as it actively contracts and releases (i.e. based on the action classically assigned to that particular muscle).

Using modern ultrasound equipment capable of measuring the muscles and the fascial tissues in vivo, however, researchers were surprised to discover that in oscillatory movement, the muscle fibres contract, or stiffen, almost isometrically (without changing length) and the Achilles tendon, in fact, acts like a strong elastic spring (Fig. 6).[14] This would mean the muscle can act more like a brake on the spring-loaded recoil of the pre-tensioned Achilles, under such circumstances. This might suggest the muscles have a role in modifying or regulating stiffness and elasticity in appropriate length to tensional balance.

Figure.6 Images of research by Kawakami and colleagues (see note 13), after Schleip, showing the cooperation of muscles and fascial tissues. A is the classical view of the muscle moving with a relatively static tendon; B is the research result, showing the muscle acting more like a brake, while the tendon lengthens and contracts, acting more like a spring.

This suggests, effectively, the muscles can act more like brakes while the tendinous tissues lengthen and shorten like springs. In terms of applied biotensegrity, the body-wide implications of this have global effects on the organisation of the structure as a whole. In other words, the ‘muscle’ (which of course is a myofascial component of a global network or matrix of soft tissues) acts more like (in Dr Stephen Levin’s words) a ‘turnbuckle’[15] in the body-wide tensioned web. The internal compression members (bones) globally tension the external soft tissues surrounding them, which in turn compress the bones, which in turn tension the tissues and so on and on. Thus, they are in a mutual balance that allows forces to be appropriately transmitted throughout the structure as a whole. This balance also preserves internal spaces; such as at the joints[16] or through the neuro-vascular vessels. The more we look, the more examples of elastic integrity we find in every aspect of the form and on every scale.

What all this research suggest is that we rely on elasticity perhaps more than we realise. The revelations about the fascial matrix are shifting the explanations we have for biomechanical function. They also raise many new questions and begin to make sense of why describing
the experience of animating yoga postures in terms of levers, for example, is so awkward. According to Dr Levin “there are no levers in biologic systems. Anywhere.”[17]

 

Joint Space

Levers

Levers are two-bar, open-chain linkage systems that do not explain our multi-joint and multi-directional abilities to move and balance. There are no pins at the joints, such as would be necessary in a two-bar (lever) open-chain system. “We maintain the joint space and its integrity through the omni-directionality of our living tissues, continuous from finger to toe, from side to side, front to back and top to bottom. This moves us from linear mechanics, hinge-like joints and ‘one muscle works at a time’ mentality to a more global, continuous tensioned contractile fabric that facilitates closed chain kinematic linkages. A three bar linkage system would be too rigid and would not allow movement….[suggesting that closed chain 4-bar and multi-bar linkages are the minimum]” John Sharkey[18]

How can this be applied?

We are invited by various research into the fascial matrix[19] to
view the muscles (and any other components of our form) as part of the continuity of myofascial balance throughout the tensional web of our architecture, in multiple dimensions. The tissues clearly participate in the subtle translation and mediation of all types of movement. While this research focuses on different specific types of tendinous organisations, we must remember that the body itself does not go about getting agreement from each separate part. It organises and acts as an instinctive whole and the fascial matrix may be the uniting medium in which these specialisations occur.

Anatomy Trains[20] encourages us to see the muscles-in-fascia in longitudinal bands of continuity. This suggests both fascia (inclusive of tendons, ligaments and tendinous sheets) and muscle (in which it is profoundly invested) form integrating bands from head to
 toe[21].Whether you agree with the anatomical content
of individual lines, slings or layers, Myers takes us towards an anatomical view of the body that endorses wholeness. He refers to the myofascial meridians as ‘lines of pull’, which is an important distinction in terms of elasticity. They are ‘pulled’ even when we are resting. The bones of our biotensegrity architecture maintain them under tension. They have to have something to pull on!

Fig 7 The so-called Superficial Back Line[22] is a metaphor for continuity. It is not separate in the living body from the layer beneath or those either side of it. In a movement class we do not have time to assess muscle by muscle – nor does the body move that way[23].

Figure 7, shows the Superficial Back Line of Anatomy Trains (which includes the tissues of the foot, the Achilles, the calf and all the way up the hamstrings, erector spinae and over the back of the head to the bridge of the nose) can be shown to form a continuous layer and band, under tension.

We have to expand our view to include the whole body to get a sense of why the bones play such an important role in creating suitable tensioning, or stiffness, in our tension–compression form. This is the quantum leap, from muscles as levers to muscles as moderators of stiffness and stretch. We might call them ‘tighteners’ or ‘modifiers’ in the weave of our three-dimensional architecture.

When you tension an elastic band and stretch it, Fig 8 you are sensing its resistance to deformation, that is, its stiffness. When you release it you are demonstrating its elasticity, that is, its ability to return, or reformation. Two important facts arise from doing this exercise, which are:

(1) You need sufficient resistance to deformation (stiffness), or the band is floppy and pulled out of shape too readily.
(2) By fully releasing the band you do NOT demonstrate

(2) By fully releasing the band you do NOT demonstrate resting tension in the human body.
It is the halfway point of the elastic band, the semi-tensioned stage B that demonstrates resting tension in the human body. We are ‘pre-stiffened’ or ‘pre-tensioned’ because we do not deflate. We never experience the state represented by the elastic band at rest.  We start at the second stage, the middle way, which is our default elasticity at rest and in stillness.

We are ‘pre-stiffened’ or ‘pre-tensioned’ because we do not deflate. We never experience the state represented by the elastic band at rest.  We start at the second stage, the middle way, which is our default elasticity at rest and in stillness.

 

Figure 8: An elastic band at non-tension (A), semi-tensioned or mid-point (B) and fully stretched (max-point) (C) (Reproduced with permission from the author)

 

Elasticity is an energy asset throughout many forms of our internal and locomotive structure, and many aspects of our architecture actually rely on it in health.

“the visco-resilient nerves are under a constant internal tension. The strength of these forces is seen in ruptured nerves. Simply because of their tremendous elasticity, the two severed nerve stumps shorten by several millimeters. In repair procedures, the surgeon has to use a considerable amount of strength to bring the two nerve ends together again … It is elasticity that allows nerves to adjust to the movement of a joint without loss of function.”[24].

The research that is accumulating on the study of biotensegrity is perhaps so compelling because in some aspects it suggests a scale-free explanation of our movements: from organelles within a cell, cells within an organ, vessels throughout the body and so on to include the whole organism. We recapitulate at the cellular level the same micro-patterns as whole bodies performing macro-movements, on a larger scale. This is also reflected in our personal evolution and development from embryo to elder.  It is invariably on an individual basis as each person moves uniquely at any given moment in time: accumulating their own physical and emotional tendencies and gestures.

 “A recognised characteristic of connective tissue is its impressive adaptability. When regularly put under increasing physiological strain, it changes its architectural properties to meet the increasing demand.”[25]

Whichever way we do movements, exercises, yoga or other physical pursuits, we are looking for a place of
elastic integrity, wherever we are (at the time) in terms of resting tension. While we are alive, we do not get to abstain from this choice. The ‘vote’ for inertia sets up its own strain (or lack of strain) patterns. The lack of strain allows for the sogginess we observe in the weaker of the two models in Fig 4. What is also crucial is the timing of how our strain patterns are accumulated. The ‘myo’ part of the ‘myofascia’ (tensioned as it is by the bones) works in co-dependent relationship to modify stiffness and elasticity in balance. Each aspect can respond in different time frames.

Summary and new considerations:

So how do we put all this together? Besides the knowledge we have for training and exercise, we uncover a body-wide explanation that includes using muscles for strength and tensioning, while benefiting from using tissues for stretch and flexibility. It begins to explain motion in 360 degrees with a whole range of variabilities. It also invites us to reconsider “stretching” or “strengthening” as better or worse forms of training the body. The relative value of either of these types of movements resides in whether or not they work for the individual accumulating them in their tissues and to what degree. That is, what value do they have in the goal of optimising resilience and balance or poise for their elastic body?

Biotensegrity raises many new questions as a model of human form and movement. It doesn’t fit easily into the biomechanical models of disconnected parts that might be described as acting independently of one another. It also invites new semantic distinctions and connotations for words like ‘stiffness’, ‘tension’, ‘resistance’ and ‘strain’ and ‘stress’. We are called to redefine stretching, for example[26],[27],[28] and review the context in which it is upheld and used in movement training.

Fig 9: This puppy is using its whole body, from tail tip to nose tip to balance the overall structure. The biotensegrity model explains this as a whole body architecture; expressing emergent properties to balance from moment to moment, as distinct from the more classical lever mechanics. (Reproduced with kind permission from Shane McDermott, www.wildearthilluminations.com)

One of many difficulties encountered in explaining the essential organisation of biotensegrity is the need to reside in paradox: that which connects (the fascial connective tissues) also disconnects (the membranes thereof). That which tensions also compresses. That which is under compression is simultaneously tensioning. In essence, the ability to fully appreciate the art of the Elastic Body is enhanced by understanding the science behind dynamic models such as BioTensegrity. It is a new science of Body Architecture and one that will transform the ability to learn, teach and express our movement signatures safely and with vitality.

For a more detailed explanation expanding on this theme and further reading references see YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015.

 

Text and Figures Copyright Joanne Avison.

Joanne Avison Professional Structural Integrator and Advanced Yoga Teacher (E-RYT500) KMI, CTK, IASI. Co-chair Presentation Committee Biotensegrity Summit, Washington DC, September 2015

Art of Contemporary Yoga Ltd, 87 Fernhurst Crescent, Brighton, BN1 8FA, United Kingdom. www.joanneavison.com

 

Endnotes:

[1] Schleip R. Schleip, D.G. Müller, ‘Training Principles for Fascial Connective Tissues: Scientific Foundation and Suggested Practical 
Applications”, Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 17: 103–115; 2013 and Terra Rosa e-magazine [please add exact date/edition reference Budi].

[2] Joanne S Avison, YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 8, The Elastic Body

[3] Joanne Avison, YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 13, Posture Profiling

[4] Robert Schleip, “Foreword”, in Luigi Stecco and Carla Stecco, Fascial Manipulation: Practical Part, English edition by Julie Ann Day, foreword by Robert Schleip, Piccin, Padua, 2009.

[5] Leonid Blyum (http://blyum.com/). Private presentation at the Biotensegrity Interest Group (B.I.G.) Europe, Ghent, 2013

[6] Tom Flemons made and sold toys designed on tensegrity principles for many years. His “Skwish” toys were licensed to a local company 
to manufacture in 1987. Manhattan Toys subsequently bought that company and the licensing rights in 1995.

[7] Ibid.
See also, for further reading: http://www.intensiondesigns.com/bones_of_tensegrity.html

[8] Note: For an example of insufficient stiffness, this reference links to a film about a condition called “Swimmer puppy syndrome” : see YouTube references to Swimmer Puppy Syndrome: http://www.wimp.com/puppytherapy/ for video

[9] Bruce Hamilton’s designs can be seen at www.tensiondesigns.com.

[10] Adjo Zorn and Kai Hodeck; Erik Dalton, The Dynamic Body, Freedom from Pain Institute, Oklahoma, 2011; http://erikdalton.com/ 
products/dynamic-body/).

[11] Bruce Hamilton’s designs can be seen at www.tensiondesigns.com

[12] Graham Scarr, www.tensegrityinbiology.co.uk/, article: “Geodesic”. See also: Biotensegrity: The Structural Basis of Life, Handspring 
Publishing Ltd., Pencaitland, 2014.

[13] Joanne Avison, YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 7,

[14] Y. Kawakami, T. Muraoka, S. Ito, H. Kanehisa and T. Fukunaga, “In vivo Muscle Fibre Behaviour During Counter-Movement Exercise in Humans Reveals a Significant Role for Tendon Elasticity”, Journal of Physiology 540: 635–646; 2002.

[15] Stephen Levin, personal communication at the Biotensegrity Interest Group, Belgium, 2013; http://www.biotensegrity.com/muscles_ at_rest.php; A.T. Masi and J.C. Hannon, “Human Resting Muscle Tone (HRMT): Narrative Introduction and Modern Concepts”, Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 12(4): 320–332; 2008.

[16] John Sharkey, BioTensegrity. The fallacy of biomechanics. Journal of Australian Association of Massage Therapists.Volume 14, issue 2 Winter 2015

[17] Stephen Levin: www.biotensegrity.com: Home Page and several articles under Papers: Tensegrity: The New Biomechanics.

[18] John Sharkey, see article in this edition of Terra Rosa magazine “BioTensegrity”

[19] Robert Schleip, Thomas W. Findley, Leon Chaitow and Peter A. Huijing, Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body, Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, 2012.

[20] Thomas W. Myers, Anatomy Trains: Myofascial Meridians for Manual and Movement Therapists, 2nd edition, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2009.

[21] Joanne Avison, YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 12, Yoga and Anatomy Trains

[22] Thomas W. Myers, Anatomy Trains: Myofascial Meridians for Manual and Movement Therapists, 2nd edition, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2009. The Superficial Back Line

[23] For a more detailed explanation expanding on this theme see YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 12, Yoga and Anatomy Trains

[24] Jean-Pierre Barral and Alain Croibier, Manual Therapy for the Peripheral Nerves, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2007.

[25] Robert Schleip, Thomas W. Findley, Leon Chaitow and Peter A. Huijing, Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body, 
Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, Edinburgh, 2012.

[26] Luiz Fernando Bertolucci , “Pandiculation: Nature’s Way of Maintaining the Functional Integrity of the Myofascial System?”, Journal 
of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 15(3): 268–280; 2011.

[27] Doug Richards, University of Toronto, Assistant Professor, Medical Director, David L. MacIntosh Sport Medicine Clinic. Also see 
www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qYYhkfu_vc for a 45 minute presentation by Doug Richards called “Stretching: The Truth”.

[28] For a more detailed explanation expanding on this theme and further reading references see YOGA Fascia, Anatomy and Movement, Handspring Publishing 2015, Chapter 4, Biotensegrity Structures and Chapter 8, The Elastic Body